Encourse Wiki

Old Testament — Topic 1

Properties3
tagstopic
courseOld Testament
unitTopic 1

15 min read

Old Testament — Topic 1

1.4 Hebrew Bible.

This name usually refers to the Hebrew text of the Old Testament in the Jewish tradition of book arrangement and reading rules.

Since Jews do not recognize the New Testament and do not consider their Covenant to be “Old”, they usually call their Bible תַּנַךְ [Tańah]. This is an abbreviation with the conditional pronunciation of the first letters of the words תּוֺרָה [Torah] (law), נְּבִאִים [neviim] (prophets) and כִּתוּבִים [ketuvim] (scriptures) - the names of the three main sections into which the Old Testament books are divided in the Hebrew version of the canon.

This division of books took shape in ancient times. In Luke 24:44, Christ, speaking about the Holy Scriptures, calls them “the Law of Moses, the prophets and psalms” (as the first book in the Scriptures section).

Miqra.

This term is derived from the verb מִּקְרָא [mikrá], which means “to call, call, shout, invite”, as well as “read, proclaim”. Therefore, the noun “miqra” has both a direct meaning “reading” and a figurative “call, meeting”. This term has biblical origin. In the book of Nehemiah, when describing the public reading of the Pentateuch, it says: “they read from the book, from the law of God, clearly, and added interpretation, and the people understood what they read (בַּמִּקְרָא [bam mikra])” (Neh. 8:8). Literally - “the people understood in what they read”.

1.1 Testament, Covenant, Union.

Among the greatest books which exist in the literary treasury of mankind and serve its spiritual enlightenment, are the Holy “Book of Books” - the Bible occupies a completely exceptional position. It contains the Divine Word as the embodiment of the infinite Spirit and the all-perfect, all-embracing absolute Reason. The Holy Bible is so much higher than all other books, as the Divine infinite Mind is higher and more perfect than the finite, limited human mind.

The Epistle to the Hebrews says about Supernatural Revelation: “God, who spoke many times and in many ways to the fathers in the prophets, in these last days spoke to us in the Son …” (Heb. 1:1-2).

Several conclusions can be drawn from this passage. First, God revealed Himself to people many times (“many times”); secondly, He did it in various ways (“in various ways”); thirdly, the Lord spoke to people through chosen people (“the prophets”); and fourthly, the Supernatural Revelation consists of several parts (“from ancient times … in the last times”). The first part of this Revelation was addressed to the Old Testament Church (“the Fathers”), the second - to the New Testament Church (“us”). However, both of these parts are Divine Revelation, and they are both important for Christians. One more conclusion can be drawn - since the Divine revelation can be read, it was written down.

The recorded Supernatural Revelation, that is, what, how, and to whom God spoke, how this information came to us, and how it was understood. And this will be the subject of our study.

Holy Scripture.

Scripture γραφή [graphy] or Scripture γραφάς [graphas]. This name speaks of the form in which Divine Revelation exists. This is how our Lord Jesus Christ called the collection of the Holy Books, for example: “Study the Scriptures (γραφάς), for you think through them to have eternal life; and they testify of Me ”(John 5:39), or:“ He who believes in Me, as it is said in the Scripture (γραφή), from within him will flow rivers of living water ”(John 7:38). St. ap. Paul also calls these books “Scripture”: “… God first promised through His prophets, in the holy scriptures (γραφαῖς ἁγίαις [graphas agias])” (Rom. 1:2).

Bible.

This name comes from the Greek word βιβλία [vivliya] - “books” and is synonymous with the word סְּפָרִים [sepharim]. The Jews used the term סְּפָרִים [sefarim] to name individual parts or the entire collection of Scripture, that is, “books”, “scrolls”, from the word סֵפֶר [séfer] - “scroll”, “book”. The word βιβλία is the plural form of βιβλίον [vivlion] - “book.” The Latinized form of Biblia in the Middle Ages came into use in the singular. The origin of the word βιβλίον is associated with the Phoenician port of Byblos. Trade in papyrus, the main writing material of antiquity, went through it. For the first time, the term βιβλία to denote Holy Scripture is found in the prologue of the book of the Wisdom of Jesus, son of Sirach.

1.2 The Word of God or the Word of the Lord.

The Hebrew term דָּבָר [davar] does not mean “word” as a part of speech, but a living utterance, a conversation filled with meaning. When Scripture speaks of the “Word of God”, this is not an indication of the fact of God’s direct speech to man, but, first of all, an expression of His power and will. If the Word of God is written down (Ex. 24:4), then such a record becomes a textbook or instruction for the life of the believer. The Scriptures describe the Word of God as follows: “Is not My Word like fire, says the Lord, and is it not like a hammer that breaks a rock?” (Jer. 23:29), “The grass dries up, the flower withers, but the word of our God will abide forever” (Is. 40:8), “… man does not live by bread alone, but by every [word] that proceeds from the mouth of the Lord, he lives man ”(Deut. 8:3).

The Law of the Lord or the Law of God. When the Lord chose the Jewish people, He gave them through Moses a code of laws that regulated all areas of life in accordance with the will of God. This body of laws is called תּוֺרָה [Torah]. In most cases, this term is translated as “Law” or “Law of Moses”. However, the meaning of the word תּוֺרָה is extremely wide: it includes a certain prescription, and individual commandments, and the entire code of laws given by God.

In the ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament (Septuagint) תּוֺרָה is rendered by the word νόμος [nómos]. However, the phrase “the Law of God” often denotes not only the Pentateuch of Moses, but all of Scripture. For example, ”… is it not written in your law: I said: you are gods?” (John 10:34).

1.3 Old and New Testament.

The Bible is divided into Old Testament and New Testament. Of course, before the coming of Christ, there was no division into the Old and New Testaments. There was only one collection of Sacred Books. But after other Bible books were written, the Church began to distinguish between the Old and New Testaments.

The word Testament בְּרִית [berith] can be translated from the Hebrew language not just as “agreement” or “covenant”, but as “union”. In Greek, בְּרִית was translated by the word διαθήκης [diaphikis], that is, “will” or “covenant”. This union was made between God and man for the salvation of mankind.

The expression “Old Testament” suggests that the basic concept - the Testament. The central covenant of this time is the Union or Covenant between God and the Israelite people, concluded at Mount Sinai, shortly after the exodus of the Jews from Egypt. What did the term “covenant” mean to the ancient Jews?

Based on this meaning, someone might think that the Covenant between God and people is a system of commandments given by God as a supreme Being, and obligatory for people to fulfill, regardless of whether God takes part in their lives. However, the Hebrew term בְּרִית (berith), and related Semitic words, were used primarily to indicate the most diverse agreements concluded between individuals or groups of people: commercial, military and political. They could be concluded both between parties equal in their status and position, and between parties, one of which is more influential and powerful.

Like today, the texts of treaties in ancient times had a certain structure. Based on the analysis of the ancient Middle Eastern (in particular, Hittite) treaties of the III and, mainly, II millennia BC, the following parts can be distinguished:

1. Introduction (with the names of the parties involved)

2. Historical circumstances of the contract

3. Conditions and mutual obligations of the parties

4. Storing copies and reading text

5. Evidence of seriousness of intentions and invocation of the gods

6. Curses and Blessings.

The central event in the sacred history of mankind in the period before the incarnation of Jesus Christ was the exodus of the Jewish people from Egypt, and the subsequent conclusion of the Covenant with God at Mount Sinai. The covenant is called in the Hebrew text by the term בְּרִית (berith) and in fact was a contract that included all the sections listed above. The basis of the contract is the ten commandments (Ex. 20:1-17; Deut. 5:6-21), while the subsequent legislative texts of the Pentateuch of Moses are its continuation and addition. All of the above sections are clearly revealed in this treaty. The introduction, in this case, is the first and half of the second verse of the 20th chapter of Exodus. “And God spoke all these words, speaking” (Ex. 20:1) - an introductory phrase indicating the superiority of one of the parties to the agreement. A similar wording can be found in the Hittite treaties. For example, the preamble of the treaty between the Hittite king Murshilish and the Amorrean Duppi-Tesub reads as follows: “These are the words of the solar Murshilish, the great king of the Hittite land, valiant, favorite of the god of storms.” Further, in the book of Exodus, there is an indication of the parties to the agreement: “I am the Lord your God” (Ex. 20:2a), thus God is Yahweh (in ancient Greek and later European translations, the personal name of God is “Yahweh” transmitted as “Lord”) on the one hand, and the Jewish people (“yours”) on the other. The historical situation of the Sinai Covenant is presented in a short but succinct phrase, pointing to the extraordinary events that just happened at the will of Yahweh with the Jewish people: “Who brought you out of the land of Egypt, from the house of slavery” (Ex. 20:2b).

The terms of the Sinai Covenant are set out in the Ten Commandments (Ex. 20:3-17). When reading them, it should be remembered that the traditional translation in the form of a negative imperative (don’t do this and that) is imprecise. It is more correct to translate in an affirmative form: “You will not do this and that” (you will not kill, you will not commit adultery), which is not only correct in the philological sense, but also corresponds to the logic of the contract. The obligations of the Jewish people are spelled out in detail, while on the part of God protection, mercy and longevity are promised, especially in connection with the specific clauses of the agreement - “(God) who works mercy up to a thousand generations, who love Me, and keep My commandments” (Ex. 20:6); “That your days may be prolonged in the land which the Lord your God gives you” (Ex. 20:12).

Subsequently, both tablets were kept in the Ark of the Covenant, in the Holy of Holies of the Tabernacle (and later, the Jerusalem Temple). In Deuteronomy, it was prescribed to regularly read the text of the treaty for the Feast of Tabernacles (Deut. 31:10-13).

In the texts of treaties of the ancient Middle East, there is a section designed to attest to the seriousness of the intentions of the parties. In the Pentateuch, a testimony to the seriousness of the intentions of the Jewish people, along with calling on the name of the Lord, was the erection of an altar of 12 stones by Moses (Ex. 24:3-4). Curses for breach of treaty were an integral part of agreements in the ancient world, and this section was rather brief in the Hittite treaties, and thoroughly worked out in the Assyrian and Syrian documents. Blessings for enforcing the agreement followed, and were generally more concise. Sometimes this section was omitted altogether. A unique feature of the Sinai Covenant is that in God’s contract with the Jewish people, blessings precede curses (Lev. 26:3-13 - blessings; 26:14-33 - curses; regarding the settled life in Canaan: Deut. 28:1-14 - blessings; 28:15-68 - curses). In this order, Bible scholars see God’s special relationship to the people with whom He makes a covenant. The grace received through blessings is a more reliable motivation for fulfilling the Covenant than fear of curses. The exodus of the Jews from Egypt, and the conclusion of the Covenant at Mount Sinai, became the central events that determined the life of the Israeli people for a millennium and a half. However, these events would have been impossible without the previous tradition of the mutual relationship of God with the ancestors of the Jews during the patriarchal period. Therefore, directing Moses to Egypt in order to lead the people out of there, God not only reveals to him His personal name - Yahweh (Ex. 3:14), but also points to the inextricable connection of what is happening with the previous period of Holy history: “So say to the children of Israel: The Lord, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob, sent me to you ”(Ex. 3:15).

This indication is not accidental. The term בְּרִית (berith) is also used in the Pentateuch to denote the special relationship God entered into with the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Gen. 15:7-21; 17:1-13; Ex. 2:24) and also with Noah (Gen. 6:18; 9:9-17). These treaties were of a slightly different nature than the Sinai Covenant. They were not formalized in the form of text, with a specific structure, they did not list detailed conditions. The significance of these treaties is that through them a certain tradition of righteousness arose that made possible the conclusion of the Covenant after the exodus from Egypt. Due to the fact that the deep meaning of the relationship between God and people remained the same, people strive for holiness and righteousness, and receive God’s help in this, then it is correct not to speak about the conclusion of fundamentally new, separate covenants (between God and Noah, God and the patriarchs, God and the Jewish people), but about the renewal each time in a new historical context, in a new situation, a single Covenant between God and people, an essential character, the purpose and objectives of which remain unchanged. From this point of view, we can say that initially the conclusion of the Covenant between God and people took place with the first of the created people - Adam, even before the Fall, in the Garden of Eden (Gen 2:16-17), 22 although the term בְּרִית (berith) in this case it is not used in the Pentateuch.

Because Israel failed to fulfill the law of Moses, God promised to make a new covenant. The term “New Testament” was first mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah: “Behold, the days are coming, says the Lord, when I will conclude a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah (בְּרִית), not such a covenant as I entered into with their fathers on the day when I took them by the hand to lead them out of the land of Egypt; They broke that covenant of mine, although I remained in union with them, says the Lord ”(Jer. 31:31-32). By the house of Israel and Judah, the prophet means all the people of God, and through them the covenant is to be extended to all people.

The term “New Testament” appears several times in the second part of Scripture. Our Lord Jesus Christ speaks about the conclusion of the New Testament during the Last Supper. This new union is concluded by Jesus Christ through His death (Luke 22:20; 1 Cor. 11:25). St. ap. Paul also spoke about this New Testament (2 Cor. 3:6,14; Heb. 8:8; 9:11-15).

The name “Old Testament” was first used by St. ap. Paul: “But their minds are blinded: for the same veil remains unreleased to this day during the reading of the Old Testament (διαθήκης), because it is removed by Christ” (2 Cor. 3:14).

Both the Old and New Testaments for Christians are Divine Supernatural Revelations. The Old Testament says that God promised people the Messiah and how, through gradual revelations, prophecies and transformations, prepared them for this. The New Testament tells how God fulfilled His promise and gave people a Savior.

1.4 Hebrew Bible.

Miqra.

  • Testament, Covenant, Union.
    • The Word of God or the Word of the Lord.
    • Old and New Testament.
    • Hebrew Bible.

1.3 Old and New Testament.

1. Introduction (with the names of the parties involved)

2. Historical circumstances of the contract

3. Conditions and mutual obligations of the parties

4. Storing copies and reading text

6. Curses and Blessings.

1.1 Testament, Covenant, Union.

Holy Scripture.

Bible.

1.2 The Word of God or the Word of the Lord.

Graph View

Backlinks