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Moral Theology — Topic 16. Christian Ministry in the World.

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Moral Theology — Topic 16. Christian Ministry in the World.

Among the causes of the modern ecological crisis are those referred to as anthropogenic, that is, arising as a result of human activity. Among other things, this includes the irrational use and distribution of natural resources, the release of harmful substances into the water and air—that is, everything that could be called ecological nihilism, or indifference to the world in which we live. What causes humanity to treat the surrounding world this way? What cultural, philosophical, and religious factors could have led to such an attitude? And how does Christianity call on us to address environmental issues today?

Strange as it may seem, in the second half of the 20th century, some authors saw the causes of this cruel and destructive attitude toward the environment in the peculiarities of the biblical worldview. One of the first to express such views was Lynn White Jr., who published the article “The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis” in the journal Science in 1967. He argued that the crisis is rooted in Judeo-Christian conceptions of matter, which allow humans to treat nature without the former animistic, reverent attitude toward the world[1]. Somewhat later, A. Toynbee expressed similar thoughts, believing that the causes of the ecological crisis can be found in the fact that people of biblical culture are convinced that they have received from God the right to “rule over creation…” (Gen. 1:28)[2]. And while at that time such reasoning could be countered only with theological arguments, today, by turning to statistics, we can speak of the level of pollution in various countries and the actual damage their activities inflict on the environment. Even a cursory glance at the statistics suggests that countries whose cultures are historically linked to biblical values do not top the rankings and are no different from all the others.

And yet, given the extent to which the Christian and, more broadly, the biblical worldview influences various aspects of public life, it is worth reflecting on how Christianity views nature, the use of the earth’s resources, and the protection of the planet from pollution.

The Biblical Foundations of the Christian Worldview

So how does Christianity actually view environmental issues?Christians believe that the world created by the good God was indeed “very good” (Gen. 1:31). As we already know, man was created to rule over the earth, but the essence of this dominion was that he should “cultivate and keep” the world—that is, creatively transform it while preserving the goodness that the Creator had placed within it.

In Holy Scripture itself, we find many testimonies that the Lord cares for His creation. Thus, the psalmist, addressing God, says: “You visit the earth and satisfy its thirst; You abundantly enrich it: the stream of God is full of water; … You bless its growth; You crown the summer with Your goodness…” (Ps. 64:10–14). The Savior Himself, in the Sermon on the Mount, speaks of how the Heavenly Father feeds the birds, which “neither sow nor reap nor gather into barns” (Matt. 6:26).

At the same time, the world as we know it is a world marred by the consequences of the Fall of man. It is distorted precisely because of man’s fault and “awaits with hope the revelation of the sons of God.” The Apostle clarifies: “Creation was subjected to futility, not willingly, but because of the one who subjected it, in hope that creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and brought into the glorious freedom of the children of God” (Rom. 8:19–22). The Fall cast a shadow not only over humanity and creation, but also over their relationship. He who had once been able to enjoy “the fruit of the trees of paradise” in harmony with his surroundings was now forced to eat from the ground “with sorrow… all the days of his life.” Adam and his descendants must earn their bread “by the sweat of their brow,” for the ground yields him “thorns and thistles” (Gen. 3:17–19). Having been expelled from paradise to “till the ground” (Gen. 3:23), humanity could build its relationship with it in various ways. Unfortunately, both biblical and non-biblical data—archaeological evidence—suggest that people moved quite quickly from “tilling and keeping” to ruthlessly exploiting and consuming. Explaining the spiritual basis for such an attitude toward the earth, the prophet Isaiah says: “The earth is defiled by those who dwell upon it, for they have transgressed the laws, changed the ordinance, and broken the everlasting covenant” (Isa. 24:5). Of course, he is referring primarily to spiritual defilement, and by “the earth” he means the “Promised Land,” but despite all the differences, these processes are actually very similar.

As God gradually restores a proper relationship with the world, He gives His people commandments that limit consumption and emphasize the need to treat the earth with care. One of the most obvious of these is the law requiring the land to rest during the so-called sabbatical year: “In the seventh year there shall be a Sabbath of rest for the land, a Sabbath to the Lord: you shall not sow your field nor prune your vineyard; whatever grows of itself in your harvest, you shall not reap, nor gather the grapes of your unpruned vines; it shall be a year of rest for the land” (Lev. 25:5). A similar attitude toward all fruit trees is prescribed in the commandment from the Book of Deuteronomy: “If you lay siege to a city for a long time to conquer it and take it, do not destroy its fruit trees, nor ravage its surroundings; for a tree in the field is not a man, that it might flee from you to a stronghold.” However, in fairness, it is worth noting that in the very next verse, God says that non- fruit-bearing trees may be “destroyed and cut down,” but for one purpose only—to “build a siege ramp against the city that is at war with you, until you have subdued it” (Deut. 20:19–20).

As early as the patristic era, a truly Christian attitude toward the surrounding world was expressed in the teachings of St. Abba Dorotheus. He says: “The preservation of conscience is manifold: for a person must preserve it in relation to God, to one’s neighbor, and to things… The preservation of conscience in relation to things consists in treating any object with care, not allowing it to be damaged, and not discarding it carelessly…”[3]. Naturally, in tradition, this preservation of conscience regarding things came to extend to one’s attitude toward all material things, including natural objects. Along with the moral aspect, some authors speak of the ontological connection between man and the entire created world. Thus, St. Leontius of Cyprus writes that “through the sky, the earth, the seas, the trees, the stones, … and through all creation, visible and invisible,” he worships the Creator and honors “the universal Creator, Lord, and sole Maker.” Anticipating the insights of V.N. Lossky, the saint asserts: “For creation does not worship Him of its own accord, but through me the heavens offer praise to God. Through me the moon worships Him, and the stars glorify Him”[4]. Moreover, St. Basil the Great asserts that “the world is a work of art, subject to the contemplation of all, so that through it the wisdom of its Creator is known”[5]. From the cited evidence, a perfectly obvious conclusion can be drawn. The biblical view of the world presupposes that man is placed in it as a ruler, that is, he may enjoy its blessings. At the same time, man’s dominion presupposes a thoughtful and careful attitude toward nature, as something bestowed upon him by God. To some extent, the development of Christian dogmatics played a role in the formation of such an attitude toward the world. Thus, according to N.K. Gavryushin, the result of the dogma of icon veneration was “an ‘icon-venerating’ attitude toward the world, in which the image and mystery of its Creator are, after all, imprinted”[6].

In practice, this perception led Christians to modesty. In instructing Timothy, the Apostle Paul wrote: “If we have food and clothing, let us be content with that. But those who desire to be rich fall into temptation and a snare, and into many foolish and harmful desires that plunge people into ruin and destruction” (1 Tim. 6:7–9). It is no coincidence that the apostle clarifies that the desire for wealth is not natural to man, but is linked to temptation and folly. It is noteworthy that it was precisely this unwillingness to become rich that seemed foolish to the pagan majority surrounding the early Christians. According to A.G. Aman, the Christians of antiquity, “by striving to reduce their earnings to the minimum necessary for daily life, … invited reproaches for the inefficiency of their activities, which did not allow them to prosper as they ought…”[7]. No one understood that they had no intention of prospering in this world, remembering that they “have no lasting city here, but seek the one to come” (Heb. 13:14). And even if, over time, they lost the eschatological tension of early Christian community life, they always continued to recognize it as an ideal.

The Consumerist Civilization

Speaking of the commandments given to man in the Garden of Eden, we must not forget that after the Fall, they were all distorted. It is no coincidence that, according to St. Filaret of Moscow, Adam was to guard Paradise “not so much from the creatures subject to him as from his own intemperance[8]. However, it was precisely intemperance that gradually became the norm of life for fallen man. The reasons why intemperance took hold of man more and more are pointed out by the holy father Abba Dorotheus. He writes: “Often one might be content with a single pillow, yet he seeks a large bed; or he has a hair shirt, but wishes to replace it and acquire another, new or more beautiful, out of vanity or despondency”[9]. Particular attention must be paid to the last word, since it is precisely despondency that is the eternal companion of the hedonistic meaning of life. A person living for consumption eventually comes to the conclusion that there is no true, universal meaning, but only an abyss of meaninglessness. Faced with this, a person invents mechanisms to distract themselves from the thoughts that constantly trouble them. First and foremost, this requires setting a fully achievable goal and ensuring it constantly reappears—that is, making the process of finding goals almost automatic and habitual. The easiest path here is consumption.

Protopresbyter Alexander Schmemann, drawing on Paul Azar’s «History of European Thought», asserts that the emergence of the modern world began not with the development of science, which supposedly refuted religion, but with the rejection of “Christian maximalism,” reducing it to “simple happiness,” “simple reason,” and the rejection of the Christian culture’s characteristic thirst for the transcendence of all things”[10]. The rejection of the Christian worldview undoubtedly demanded new goals, toward which human efforts were now directed. These goals turned out to be earthly goods, which increasingly subjugated man, forcing him to devote all his strength and time to satisfying ever-growing demands. The choice made in favor of “this world” determines the entire content of spiritual life, often forcing man to renounce his faith. Reasoning in a similar vein, N.K. Gavryushin writes: “In the history of European civilization, the apparent destruction of the natural environment was preceded by the destruction of the conceptual image of natural harmony. The ‘Book of Nature,’ which the Middle Ages still read with reverence, began to be viewed in the 17th century through different eyes, preoccupied with the central question: ‘What can it offer for “human well- being”?’[11]. In turn, this led to the Christian perception of nature being consigned to oblivion in favor of utilitarian approaches, which formed the basis of the developing ideology of consumption.

Almost two hundred years ago, Alexis de Tocqueville perfectly demonstrated the logic of this ideology when he wrote the following in his work «Democracy in America»: “Although Americans live in the best conditions on earth, they are accompanied by a cloud that constantly hangs over their heads and forces them to be serious. For even when they have reason to rejoice, they never cease to think of ‘the wonderful things they do not have’[12]. At the same time, looking around us, we clearly see that today such dreams are characteristic of the majority of the world’s population. The cult of so-called “novelties” leads to a crisis of overproduction and the need to dispose of a huge amount of goods.

The ideology of consumption is indeed changing our way of life and accustoming us to strive for ever-new goals, to evaluate even personal relationships from the perspective of selfishness, individualism, and personal gain. At the same time, it has ceased to be a phenomenon of private life and has truly become a social and political phenomenon. At the same time, by objectively becoming such, the ideology of consumption divides people, making them individualistic and increasingly indifferent to the simplest virtues capable of sustaining social interaction.

The world in the face of the ecological crisis: Christian asceticism as a means of overcoming it.

Recognizing both their responsibility toward the created world and the need to imitate God in His love, Christians bear witness to this before society. Among such testimonies, it is essential to note the chapter on ecology in the Foundations of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church. It is precisely through the voice of the Church that such a message can become not so much a terrifying warning about the consequences as a creative and transformative partnership. A crisis is always a judgment on the system of values and guidelines that underlies the existing world order. Attempts to change the situation through external actions can lead only to superficial and short-lived changes. True changes in this area are possible only after changes in the spiritual realm. First and foremost, when considering how humanity can return to the path of a properly organized life, it is worth returning to Holy Scripture.

As we have seen, the cause of the modern ecological crisis is a culture of consumption rooted in vanity and despondency. At the same time, it is quite evident that, in the words of Christ, these bring all other passions into the human soul. The path chosen by a humanity possessed by passions clearly leads to its ruin, which, of course, no sane person could wish for themselves or their loved ones.

In the language of Scripture, there is the verb σωφρονέω, which the evangelists use to describe a man who was possessed but was healed by Christ (Mark 5:15, Luke 8:35). This verb means to possess a sound mind and describes a prudent person. Most strikingly, alongside its primary meaning, this verb also has a secondary one and can mean “to be restrained, modest.” The combination of these meanings in the language of Scripture is highly significant in the context of understanding ways to overcome the ecological crisis, which must begin with Christians bearing witness to the whole world that “a person’s life does not consist in the abundance of their possessions” (Luke 12:15). In calling people to change their way of life, the Church testifies: “The Christian way of life is a real alternative to consumerism. Orthodoxy teaches people to cultivate moderation and self-restraint in meeting life’s needs, responsibility for one’s actions, a rejection of excess—including the wasteful use of food—respect for the needs of others, and an understanding of the importance of spiritual values for every person”[13].

At the same time, the Church understands that, despite the importance of human efforts, concern for the world must also be expressed through prayerful appeal to its Creator. The aforementioned document of the Bishops’ Council states: “In the face of ecological crises and disasters, people are in dire need of prayerful support. It seems important to publish existing, adapted, and newly developed prayer services invoking God’s help for agricultural activities, as well as for various efforts aimed at preserving the environment. In addition to existing ones, liturgical services and separate prayers may be created to be offered during natural disasters and man-made catastrophes”[14].

[1]The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis. Lynn White. 1967. Science 155: 1203-1207. In Session No. 10, we already discussed how pagans were extremely cruel toward the environment.

[2]Toynbee, A. “The Religious Foundations of the Modern Ecological Crisis.” Science and Religion. 1974. No. 9, pp. 52–53.

[3]Dorotheus of Gaza, Abba, Venerable. Edifying Teachings, Epistles. Kaluga, 1895. - pp. 57-58.

[4]PG93, 1604 AB.

[5]Basil the Great, St. Works: In 2 vols. Vol. 1 / Basil the Great, Archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. – Moscow: Sibirskaya Blagozvonnitsa, 2008, – p. 328.

[6]Gavryushin 176

[7] Aman, A.G. The Daily Life of the Early Christians. 95–197 / Translated from French and with a preface by V.D. Balakin. – Moscow: Molodaya Gvardiya, 2003, p. 69.

[8]Filaret (Drozdov), Saint. Commentary on the Book of Genesis. Moscow: Russky Khronograf, 2004. p. 75.

[9]Dorotheus of Gaza, Abba, Venerable. Edifying Teachings, Epistles. Kaluga, 1895. pp. 57–58.

[10]Schmemann, A., Protopresbyter. Collection of Articles. 1947–1983. Moscow: Russky Put, 2011, p. 87.

[11]Gavryushin, N.K. Christianity and Ecology // Christianity and Culture Today. - Moscow: Put, 1995. - p. 178

[12]Cited from: Norman Wirzba, «Curing Our Affluenza» The Center for Christian Ethics at Baylor University.

[13] http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/text/2775125.html

[14] Ibid.

The Joy of Labor and Its Loss __

In his article “The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of the Ape into Man,” F. Engels wrote that apes were forced to work with their hands, thanks to which “a decisive step was taken in the transition from ape to man”[1]. In turn, Soviet atheist propaganda, seeking to cast the Bible in a negative light, claimed that Christianity views labor as a punishment. In doing so, they all, of course, cited the words spoken to Adam after the Fall: “By the sweat of your brow you will eat your bread.”

At the same time, a careful reading of the Book of Genesis shows that man was created to have dominion over the world, so that through labor—both physical and spiritual—he might grow in godlikeness.

From the very first words of the Bible, God appears to the reader as the Creator. Moreover, some of His actions are described by the verb בָּרָא (bārā ʔ), which, although translated as “to create” and “to make,” always implies God as the subject of this action. At the same time, when He creates something from already existing matter, the chronicler uses the verb עָשָׂה (ʕāśā h), which means “to make, to produce, to prepare,” that is, to creatively transform something already present in the world. Thus, God creates the firmament, the heavenly bodies, and much more in the world. This verb is distinct in that it can imply creativity on the part of both God and man. When God created man, He, as already mentioned, placed man in the Garden of Eden so that he might “cultivate and keep the Garden.” This verse uses the verb עָבַד (ʕāḇaḏ), which means “to work, to labor, to serve, to cultivate the land.” This verb was almost never used in reference to God.

In the first two chapters, Scripture presents three types of labor: that which belongs only to God, that which belongs only to man, and that which can be a joint endeavor. In the Garden of Eden, man was called to perform his own, human labor and to serve God through it. Man was called to transform the world, and after the Fall, the verb עָשָׂה (ʕāśā h) would be used in reference to man repeatedly. However, sadly, the first time it is used in reference to man is when he makes himself a loincloth out of fig leaves. And so, the labor that before the Fall was “tending the garden” (Gen. 2:15) became “tending the ground” (Gen. 3:23), which is destined to become man’s grave (Gen. 3:19).

In Paradise, there were trees bearing fruit that man could eat. Work was not an end in itself, and Adam had no need for sustenance. The purpose of work was not consumption, but creativity and partnership with God. The result of labor was supposed to be spiritual growth, whereas it became hard physical labor. At the same time, it was not a punishment, for when speaking of the hardship of Adam’s future life, God merely points to the consequences that resulted from sin.

At the same time, even after the Fall, labor did not immediately become difficult. Even before Abel was killed, it was said of Cain that he worked the ground. Here again, the same verb is used as for Adam’s working of the ground. However, after Abel was killed, God asks Cain, “What have you done?” It is noteworthy that the chronicler conveys this “deed” with the verb עָשָׂה (ʕāśā h ). As is well known, Cain had been warned by God about sin and could have avoided committing it. However, he acted just as his parents had when they made themselves loincloths—he attempted to assert his authority. Addressing him afterward, God tells him practically the same thing He had said to Adam in his time: “And now you are cursed from the ground… when you till the ground, it will no longer yield its strength to you” (Gen. 4:11,12). Traditionally, when interpreting this verse, the emphasis is placed on Cain’s curse, but in the context of a discussion about labor, it is important to note that, judging by God’s words, even after Adam’s curse, the ground provided Cain with sustenance, which it would no longer provide.

After man became entrenched in sin and his labor became truly arduous, from that time on, hard labor came to be associated with slavery, and the most vivid example of this slavery was the captivity in Egypt. Pointing to the hardship of labor, Moses writes: “And so the Egyptians ruthlessly forced the Israelites to work” (Ex 1:13). It is noteworthy that later, in patristic theology, Egyptian slavery would be interpreted as the slavery of sin, under which man labored inescapably.

The True Meaning of Work and Rest __

The covenant made between God and the people of Israel required the observance of commandments, many of which were directly related to labor. These were commandments concerning slaves, wages that must be paid on time, how exactly to work in the fields, and many others. Paradoxically, however, the most important commandment concerning labor was the commandment regarding the Sabbath rest. This may seem contradictory, but after the Fall, this was indeed the case. The fact is that after the Fall, people “were held in slavery all their lives by their fear of death” (Heb 2:15). The reason for this slavery lay in the fact that a person who had chosen material things as the foundation of his life was forced to constantly sustain himself and seek resources to provide for his life and activities. At the same time, the problem was not in the labor itself, but in the purpose for which it was performed. Man was at the center of his own universe; he measured everything by himself and sought to be the standard for all things. His ambitions were well known after the Tower of Babel, though even from the story of Noah, people should have understood that only labor blessed by God saves.

The Jews’ entry into the Covenant was a radical step for all of humanity. Not individual people, but an entire nation agreed to make God’s will the rule of their lives. Moreover, among these rules are those that curb humanity’s thirst for production and consumption. This is not so much about the Sabbaths themselves as about the Sabbath years, during which people, animals, and the earth itself were to rest. What did this mean in the context of labor? That by ceasing agricultural and many other works not for a single day but for an entire year, the Jews were to rely on God rather than on the strength of their own hands. To a certain extent, this cannot yet be called full partnership with God, yet it was an intermediate stage necessary for the people to live, at least for a time, understanding that all their well-being depended on God and not on themselves. Much later, already during the exile, God says through the prophet Ezekiel, “They did not follow My commandments or keep My statutes; they did not do what, if done, would have kept a person alive; they profaned My Sabbaths” (Ezek. 20:21). Such references to the violation of the Sabbath as the cause of captivity can be found repeatedly in the prophet’s writings. God Himself calls the Sabbath a “sign” between Himself and the people, by which people were to understand that before them stood the Lord, who is powerful enough to sustain those who devote time to Him, those who have not focused all their attention on trying to earn a living. This understanding was beautifully expressed by Ecclesiastes, who says: “It is not in a man’s power to do even this good—to eat and drink, and to find satisfaction in his labor. I have seen that this, too, comes from the hand of God; for who can eat and who can enjoy without Him? For to the man who is good in His sight, He gives wisdom and knowledge and joy; but to the sinner He gives the task of gathering and storing up, only to give it later to the one who is good in God’s sight…” (Eccl. 1:26).

Finally, the true place of work in human life is revealed in the New Testament.

Labor itself is perceived as an important and proper human occupation that demands every respect: «We urge you, brothers, to respect the workers among you» (1 Thess. 5:12). The apostle himself, as is well known, made tents (Acts 18:3) so as not to be a burden to anyone. At the same time, it must be understood that the apostle was not doing anything unusual, since manual labor was a traditional duty of any preacher even within the framework of Old Testament Judaism. Already in Rabbinic Judaism, it was considered unacceptable to live exclusively by preaching, since a person might begin to preach not for God’s sake, but for the sake of a secure livelihood. Therefore, the Apostle emphasizes that he and his fellow workers “ate no one’s bread for free, but worked hard day and night so as not to be a burden to anyone” (2 Thess 3:8). However, he does this not only for that reason, but also to set an example for those who have decided to live off others. In the first epistle, he does not speak of such people in detail, but simply exhorts: “to live quietly, to mind their own business, and to work with their own hands…” (1 Thess 4:11). In the second, he writes directly that among the disciples there are people who “live in disorder, doing nothing but busying themselves” (2 Thess 3:11). Such people act “ἀτάκτως”—disrupting order by doing nothing useful—but “περιεργάζομαι”—busying themselves with useless things. The second time, the apostle exhorts such disciples “in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that they should work in silence and eat their own bread” (2 Thess 3:12), having previously emphasized, “if anyone is not willing to work, let him not eat” (2 Thess 3:10).

At the same time, it is important to understand exactly why a person works.

First, for the apostle, it goes without saying that a person works to provide for himself. The entire Old Testament tradition speaks of this (Lev 19:13; Deut 24:14–15), and continuing this tradition, the Savior Himself says that “the worker is worthy of his wages” (Luke 10:7, Matt. 10:10). The Apostle twice recalls in different epistles Moses’ commandment, “You shall not muzzle an ox while it is threshing” (Deut. 25:4), because “the worker is worthy of his wages” (1 Tim 5:18, cf. 1 Cor 3:8). The Apostle James speaks very sternly on this same subject, denouncing those who do not pay workers for their labor: “Behold, the wages you have withheld from the workers who reaped your fields cry out, and the cries of the reapers have reached the ears of the Lord of Hosts” (James 5:4). In this, the apostle continues the prophetic tradition of denouncing those who do not pay workers their wages on time (Isa 58:3; Jer 22:13).

Second, since human life is not limited to earthly goals, all labor must have objectives that go beyond selfish consumption. Only labor that is blessed by God can be truly fruitful. It is no coincidence that Simon Peter says to Christ: “Master! We have toiled all night and caught nothing, but at Your word I will cast the net” (Luke 5:5). The result of such labor exceeds all expectations, for they “caught a great multitude of fish” (Luke 5:6) and had to call others to help. The surplus resulting from one’s labor should be used to help those in need. By his example, the apostle shows the disciples that “by working, we must support the weak and remember the words of the Lord Jesus, for He Himself said, ‘It is more blessed to give than to receive’” (Acts 20:35). Therefore, others too must work, “working with their own hands to do what is good, so that they may have something to share with those in need” (Eph 4:28).

True and False Wealth __

But the question arises: what should be considered an excess? Obviously, upon receiving an unexpected profit, a person can simply raise their standard of living—that is, find a use for what seemed superfluous. This is exactly what the man did who decided to build new barns to store all his grain and goods there and rest easy (Luke 12:16–20). But there is much suffering in the world, and a person must not rest, but must act in the image of God, “becoming rich in God.” However, to make this inner turn away from all-consuming selfishness and see one’s neighbor, one must stop relying solely on oneself and realize that there is a God in the world Who will arrange everything in the best possible way. This is precisely why the person who “stores up in storehouses” is contrasted with the birds of the air, which “neither sow nor reap nor gather into storehouses,” yet live because “the Heavenly Father feeds them” (Matt. 6:26). In this context, it is not so much the labor itself that matters, because “the Father knows” who is in need and of what. The main thing for the disciple—though this does not exclude the necessity of labor—is the pursuit of the Kingdom of God, which is carried out with the awareness that everything else “will be added” (Luke 12:31).

On the contrary, it is difficult for a person who is focused on wealth, who places their hope in it, to enter the Kingdom (Matt. 19:23, Mark 10:23,24). The problem, of course, is not wealth itself, since Christ says it is difficult, not impossible. The point is that in both Russian and Hebrew, wealth is something directly associated with God. In Russian, God and wealth are etymologically cognate words, and in Hebrew, כָּבוֹד (kāḇôḏ) has the extra meaning of “heaviness, weight, wealth, glory,” and this is what belongs first and foremost to God. One could say that man is created for wealth, but only true wealth, not imaginary wealth. It is often believed that poverty is what the Gospel calls us to strive for. This is partly true, but only because the wealth that man strives for is false and cannot give him the fullness of being and the fulfillment of what God intended for him. If sin is a misstep, then in this case the misstep lies in the fact that true wealth is wealth acquired together with God, not apart from Him.

In seeking a balance between wealth and poverty, the author of Proverbs exclaims: “Give me neither poverty nor riches; feed me with the food I need, lest I be full and deny you, saying, ‘Who is the Lord?’ and that, if I become poor, I may not steal and misuse the name of my God” (Prov. 30:8–9). It is noteworthy that the wise Solomon, who asked God for a heart to “discern good from evil,” entrusts everything to God’s hands when it comes to the balance between wealth and poverty. He does not rely on himself, but on the measure that the Lord will determine for him. His words sound like a beautiful parallel to the petition for daily bread, which Christians ask of the Father in the Lord’s Prayer. In and of itself, the possession of property and even wealth is not directly condemned in the Old Testament. Solomon writes: “If God has given a man wealth and possessions, and has granted him the power to enjoy them, to take his share, and to delight in the work of his hands, this is a gift from God.” (Eccl 5:18), yet this possession can become a bondage, against which the psalmist warns: “When wealth increases, do not set your heart on it” (Ps 61:11). Much later, Jesus, son of Sirach, will say this about it: “Whoever gathers by depriving his own soul gathers for others, and others will be sated with his goods” (Sir 14:3–4).

Dishonest labor and bribery __

In the context of sinful enrichment, the Scriptures very strongly condemn dishonest labor and bribery. Moreover, this condemnation occurs at the level of the law, not at the level of customs, which are expressed in the wisdom literature. Thus, while the Book of Exodus states: “Do not accept bribes, for bribes blind the sighted and pervert the cause of the righteous” ( Exod. 23:8 , cf. Deut. 16:19), Deuteronomy is even stricter: “Cursed is the one who takes a bribe to kill a soul and shed innocent blood! And all the people shall say, ‘Amen’” (Deut. 27:25). The theme of unjust judgment based on bribery appears in a wide variety of contexts and is consistently condemned everywhere (Prov. 17:23, Eccl. 7:7, Isa. 5:22–23, Amos 5:12, Micah 3:11). The Psalms repeatedly describe the righteous person who dwells with God in His dwelling place. Such a person is a source of righteousness and does not slander others nor accept slander against others; he behaves honestly even toward sinners, does not lend money at interest, and does not accept bribes (Ps. 14:5).

Similarly, in the New Testament, the Apostle Paul speaks of «pleonexia», which is translated as “greed” but can also mean “love of gain”—that is, literally, a love of profit. Addressing the Ephesians, the apostle writes: “But among you there must not even be a hint of sexual immorality, or of any kind of impurity, or of greed, because these are improper for God’s holy people” (Eph 5:3). Moreover, the apostle urges the disciples that if a person sins through bribery and yet tries to remain a member of the Church, it is better not to associate with him, just as with a fornicator, an idolater, a drunkard, a thief, and others (1 Cor 5:11)[2]. The reason for this harsh attitude toward greed is its spiritual kinship with idolatry: “Greed is idolatry” (Col. 3:5). In this case, a person becomes an idol to himself and is unable to truly follow God’s will. In the words of Christ, “No one can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve both God and mammon” (Matt. 6:24).

An example of accepting a bribe in the New Testament is Judas Iscariot, who received thirty pieces of silver and agreed to betray the Teacher at the first opportunity (Matt. 26:14–16). Simon the Sorcerer is condemned for attempting to bribe the apostles, desiring to receive from them the gift of imparting the Holy Spirit. Thus, the apostle Peter tells him plainly: “May your silver perish with you, because you thought you could buy the gift of God with money” (Acts 8:18–20).

To labor in order to be a disciple of Christ __

The fulfillment of commandments related to labor and its compensation, as well as moderation in the possession of property and the ability to do charity toward one’s neighbor, is not a value in and of itself. A person’s circumstances may be such that he considers a particular behavior advantageous for himself, yet does not put his heart into it. Sincere observance of the commandments does not come easily, especially when it comes to a sin such as greed. Man’s fall began with an attempt to enrich himself unjustly; having lost everything, he became utterly insatiable within. To free oneself from the bondage of sin, one must exert effort—but in this case, a spiritual one. In the words of the Savior: “The kingdom of heaven is taken by force, and those who strive for it seize it” (Matt. 11:12). Furthermore, in the well-known parable of the workers hired at different times, they are portrayed as those who must labor to receive the reward of which the Revelation speaks: “Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord from now on; yes, says the Spirit, they will rest from their labors, and their deeds follow them” (Rev. 14:13).

Addressing the Corinthians, the Apostle Paul writes something that at first glance seems paradoxical: “Therefore, my beloved brothers, be steadfast, immovable, always excelling in the work of the Lord, knowing that your labor is not in vain in the Lord” (1 Cor 15:58, cf. 1 Tim 4:10). From his words, it is clear that the salvation of people is the Lord’s work, and it is He who accomplishes it first and foremost. At the same time, His disciples, who have taken up their cross and followed Him, labor alongside Him in His work. And although it may seem that, when speaking of God’s fellow workers (1 Cor. 3:9), he has in mind only his fellow apostles, in reality, in a broad sense, everyone who labors spiritually is not alone but labors together with God. It is precisely through the labor of each of the disciples that the assembly of the most diverse people becomes “God’s dwelling place in the Spirit” (Eph 2:22). However, this is a gathering of living people of flesh and blood. They need the most ordinary things, and therefore spiritual labor is manifested in the relationships between brothers and sisters, in their mutual love, in praying for one another, and in mutual help and support.

Physical and spiritual labor, wealth and poverty, are united around what the Apostle Paul calls the labor of love. Overcoming the consequences of sin through diligent ascetic and moral labor, Christ’s disciples perform the “labor of love” (1 Thess 1:3) when, in their daily lives, they make efforts not only for themselves, not for the sake of human glory or wealth, but fulfill the apostle’s command: “And whatever you do, in word or deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Col 3:17).

[1] Engels, F. “The Role of Labor in the Transition from Ape to Man” // Marx, K., Engels, F. Collected Works. 2nd ed. — Moscow: State Publishing House of Political Literature, 1961. — Vol. 20.

[2] but I wrote to you not to associate with anyone who, while claiming to be a brother, is a fornicator, or a greedy person, or an idolater, or a slanderer, or a drunkard, or a swindler; do not even eat with such a person. (1 Corinthians 5:11)

Theological Foundations of Service to Others __

There is a widespread view that, unlike Western Christianity, Eastern Christianity is not characterized by a keen focus on social issues. Indeed, Orthodoxy is more often associated with contemplation and mysticism, with a certain detachment from concrete historical problems. However, even a brief acquaintance with the history of Orthodox social ministry shows that such views are prejudices. And although Orthodox Christians themselves often internally contrast the Church with the world and its immersion in the vanity of consumerism, we must not forget that God so loved the world “that He gave His only Son, that whoever believes in Him should not perish but have eternal life” (John 3:16).

Unfortunately, even believers are convinced that social assistance is a matter for the state, not a private or church matter. At the same time, by turning to Holy Scripture and Tradition, we will understand that without works of mercy, it is simply impossible to be a Christian. At the same time, following the world’s example, we must not perceive social ministry as mere service or the provision of assistance. For Christians, ministry (διακονία) is “healing and reconciliation, binding up wounds and uniting what is divided”[1]. A world fractured by the Fall needs not merely correction or service, but healing and restoration; and that is precisely why it must be filled not merely with social work, but with truly evangelical service to one’s neighbor.

In the modern world, charity plays a significant role and is becoming an increasingly common phenomenon. At the same time, society is sometimes stirred up by statements from those who believe that spending money on the poor and sick is a rather pointless endeavor. Of course, such statements are publicly condemned, but the very fact of their existence suggests that charity often has an emotional rather than a rational basis. People help one another because they feel love and compassion, not because they have rationally justified their self-sacrifice.

Christian charity, naturally, is rooted in the same feelings of love and compassion as any other. However, unlike many others, it is grounded not only in feelings but also in a theological foundation. Philanthropy turns out to be not merely the fulfillment of personal emotional preferences, but a revelation to a world steeped in evil of the existence of another reality, the mystery of the partnership between God and humanity.

Man is created in the image of the Triune God, in the image of God who, as “the merciful Lord, out of His mercy, could not look upon the human race, tormented by the devil, but came and saved us”[2]. However, according to Metropolitan Kallistos (Wear), the striving “toward the likeness of God” necessarily requires a practical conclusion: “faith in the Triune God, in the God of personal relationship and shared love, impels us to struggle—using all our strength—against poverty, exploitation, oppression, and disease. When, as Christians, we advocate for justice and human rights, for a society of compassion and solidarity, we act precisely in the name of the Trinity. It is precisely because we believe in the Triune God that we cannot remain indifferent when we see any suffering experienced by any member of the human race, in any part of the world”[3].

In the context of Scripture, mutual aid is already implied in the construction of the Tower of Babel by humans; it is here that they are first called “neighbors” in Hebrew, רֵעַ (rē aʕ), which in the LXX and the New Testament is rendered by the word πλησίον. It is noteworthy that God’s action—which, of course, corresponds to the spiritual state of people and merely brings to fruition what they themselves are striving for—consists precisely in the fact that neighbors cease to understand one another (Gen. 11:7). One might say that people ceased to perceive one another as neighbors. However, this does not mean that the feeling of compassion completely disappears from people’s lives. When Abraham grieves for the righteous who might perish in Sodom and Gomorrah, he likewise shows mercy. As a commandment, mutual aid was first prescribed to his descendants after the Exodus from Egypt. Within the framework of Old Testament ethics, mercy and mutual aid should primarily be shown toward fellow tribesmen. However, such a limitation appears to be temporary, corresponding to the spiritual state of the Old Testament person.

Undoubtedly, all the commandments that describe the norms of interpersonal relations guide a person toward proper relationships with their neighbors, although a number of commandments explicitly point to the necessity of showing mercy and providing support to those in need. The Law states this as follows: “If there is a poor person among your brothers in your land, do not harden your heart or shut your hand against your poor brother. But open your hand to him and lend him whatever he needs, according to his need” (Deut. 15:7–8). At the same time, the giver should not grieve (Deut. 15:10), and if the poor person is unable to repay, the debt must be forgiven in the seventh year (Deut. 15:1, 2). Furthermore, the law prescribed leaving part of the harvest for the poor, showing hospitality, visiting the sick, ransoming captives, and other forms of assistance to those in difficult circumstances.

All of this is the norm for God’s people, because God Himself is merciful above all else (Exod 22:27). This is precisely why, in later times, when ritual forms of piety began to take precedence in the minds of the people and the priests, God called on people through the prophets to remember the paramount importance of mercy. Thus, condemning false practices of fasting, God says: “This is the fast I have chosen: to loose the bonds of wickedness, to undo the yoke’s cords, to let the oppressed go free, and to break every yoke; share your bread with the hungry, and bring the poor and homeless into your house; when you see the naked, clothe him, and do not hide yourself from your own flesh and blood” (Isaiah 58:6,7; cf. Amos 5:21, Micah 6:8, and Zechariah 7:9–10). A similar emphasis on mercy can be found in the wisdom literature. According to the author of Proverbs, one’s relationship with God and one’s relationship with the poor are closely linked: “Whoever oppresses the poor insults their Maker, but whoever honors Him is kind to the needy” (Prov. 14:31).

From the very beginning, the New Testament message emphasizes a special focus on the ministry of mercy. This is precisely why Christ, who came “not to abolish the law but to fulfill it,” extends the Old Testament commandments regarding mercy and charity to all: “Love your enemies, do good, and lend, expecting nothing in return; … for He is kind even to the ungrateful and the wicked. “So be merciful, just as your Father is merciful” (Luke 6:34–36; cf. Gal 6:10). It is very important that the disciples should be merciful not because a reward awaits them, but because in mercy they become like the Creator, in whose image they were created.

Finally, mercy is of decisive importance in the eschatological perspective, as the parable of the Last Judgment shows. The primary criterion by which people are divided turns out to be their merciful and compassionate attitude toward others, in which their closeness to God is revealed. “As the all-good and all- satisfied One, God has no need of the works of human hands, and yet He regards merciful and charitable deeds toward the needy as those done specifically for Him” (Matt. 25:40). Commenting on the parable of the Last Judgment, St. John Chrysostom says: “And here is what is remarkable: He mentions no other virtue except works of mercy, though He could have said: ‘Come, you who are blessed,’ because you lived chastely, because you preserved your virginity, chose the evangelical life, but He remains silent about this, not because it is unworthy of mention, but because these virtues are inferior to mercy”[4].

Christ Himself teaches His disciples the example of service to the world. As He was washing His disciples’ feet, He said, “The kings of the nations, lord it over them, and those who exercise authority over them are called benefactors; but you are not to be like that. Instead, whoever is the greatest among you must be like the youngest, and whoever is in charge must be like a servant… I am among you as one who serves” (Luke 22:24–27). Reflecting on how exactly a person can imitate Christ in His service, St. John Chrysostom says: “There is nothing by which you can imitate Christ more than by caring for your neighbors. Whether you fast, sleep on the bare ground, or exhaust yourself—if you do not care for your neighbors, you are doing nothing of importance and are still far from the Image of Christ”[5].

At the same time, it is important to remember that Christ did not serve only the sick or the infirm. His life and death as a whole are perceived as a service to the world, its healing, and its transformation. This service applies not only to those who clearly need material help, but also to those who need spiritual help. An example of Christ’s healing presence is not only the house of the tax collector Zacchaeus, who is healed of spiritual ailments by bearing the fruits of repentance. “Tax collectors and prostitutes,” by associating with Christ and bearing worthy fruits, receive far more than outward well-being—they receive eternal life. In the life and witness of Christ Himself and His disciples, these two levels of ministry have always been inseparable.

Diakonia in the Tradition of the Church __

Charity is an integral part of Christian life. However, there is an area of tradition that is often used as an excuse to reduce charitable works to a minimum. This refers to ascetic literature, which is perceived as promoting extreme individualism and contemplative inner work. Laypeople who read this kind of literature tend to focus on withdrawing from the world and on external ascetic practices, but not on what could serve as an example even for them, who continue to live in the world. A person who renounces parish life and the ministry of charity often cites the words spoken by St. Arsenius the Great, “Flee from people and you will be saved,” even though he himself does not go into the desert and does not seek to understand the context of these words. Challenging such arguments, Prof. A.I. Sidorov writes: “It is wrong to say that the monks attached too much importance to their external feats. Their feats of fasting, vigils, and labor were astonishing, but they always placed love for their neighbors, purity of heart, and humility above these feats and viewed external feats only as a means to acquire these virtues”[6]. In fact, a careful examination of ascetic literature suggests that for the holy hermits, whose lives at first glance seem completely asocial, the service of mercy played a very important role.

The path of spiritual growth and perfection was a gradual ascent or the construction of a spiritual edifice, and in this, service to one’s neighbor was always considered one of the initial steps on this path. Thus, Abba John Kolov says: “You cannot build a house from the top down, but you must build from the foundation upward <…> The foundation is your neighbor; you must acquire him and begin with this. For all of Christ’s commandments hang upon him”[7]. St. Anthony the Great spoke of the importance of proper relations with one’s neighbor: “Life and death depend on one’s neighbor,” he said, “for if we win over a brother, we win over God; but if we lead a brother astray, we sin against Christ”[8]. St. Macarius the Great reasoned similarly, saying: “It is impossible to be saved except through one’s neighbor”[9].

[1]Cox, H. Mirsky University Press, Moscow, 1995. p. 136.

[2] Prayer for the Blessing of Water during the Sacrament of Baptism

[3]Callistus (Wear), Metropolitan. The Holy Trinity—A Paradigm of the Human Person // International Conference “The Most Holy Trinity,” Moscow: Synodal Biblical and Theological Commission, 2001. p. 288

[4]John Chrysostom, St. Homily 7 on Repentance // The Works of Our Holy Father John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople, in Russian translation. Complete collection of works in 12 volumes. St. Petersburg: Published by the St. Petersburg Theological Academy, 1895–1906. Vol. 2. Book 1. p. 373.

[5]John Chrysostom, St. Homily 25 on the First Epistle to the Corinthians // The Works of Our Holy Father John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople, in Russian Translation. Complete Collection of Works in 12 Volumes. St. Petersburg: Published by the St. Petersburg Theological Academy, 1895–1906. Vol. 10. Book 1. p. 247.

[6]Sidorov, A. I. Early Christian Asceticism and the Origins of Monasticism. Moscow: “Orthodox Pilgrim,” 1998, p. 504.

[7] The Skete Paterikon. Moscow, 2001, p. 331.

[8]The Ancient Paterikon, or Thematic Collection of Sayings and Aphorisms of the Desert Fathers. Published by: Holy Mount Athos, 2009, p. 487.

[9]Macarius of Egypt, St. Works. Moscow: Pilgrim, 2002. p. 428.

  • Diakonia in the Tradition of the Church
  • A Moral Assessment of Labor and Business
  • A Christian Perspective on Environmental Issues

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