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Moral Theology — Topic 9. Moral Aspects of the Sacraments_ Baptism and Confirmation.

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Moral Theology — Topic 9. Moral Aspects of the Sacraments_ Baptism and Confirmation.

  • The Moral Aspects of the Sacraments
  • The Moral Aspects of the Sacrament of Baptism
  • The Moral Aspects of the Sacrament of Chrismation
  • The Moral Significance of the Gifts of the Holy Spirit

The Moral Aspects of the Sacrament of Baptism ____

It is well known that, in doctrinal and moral terms, the New Testament gospel continued and developed the Old Testament tradition. At the same time, Jews and Christians held fundamentally different positions on the question of mission. The former practically did not engage in missionary work, since they perceived faith as belonging to a single people, the descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Undoubtedly, proselytism existed, but it was very rare and was not encouraged by the Jews themselves. Unlike the Jews, Christians were originally directed by the Savior towards preaching that is addressed to all people. In the Great Commission, which concludes the Gospel of Matthew, Christ addresses His disciples with these words: “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you; and behold, I am with you always, to the end of the age. Amen (Matt. 28:19–20).

The spiritual and moral foundation of the mission to all nations is the commandment of love, which must extend to everyone. If anyone can become a neighbor, then every person, no matter what nation they belong to, is worthy of love, which also implies a desire for their salvation. Moreover, the Savior Himself set an example of such love, for He died not for individual people, but for all. At the same time, when speaking of the content of the commandment, it is often assumed that the focus should primarily be on the transmission of knowledge. However, the word τηρέω, which Christ uses, clearly points to the subject of teaching. Although in the literal sense this verb means “to guard, protect, or watch over,” in a figurative sense it implies precisely “to observe and fulfill” and primarily refers to the commandments (John 14:15), because it is precisely these that turn out to be what He commanded. Moreover, only one commandment is directly given to the disciples: “This I command you, that you love one another” (John 15:17). In this context, the meaning of true faith—which was undoubtedly always the essence of the apostolic mission—lies not in intellectual knowledge, since “even the demons believe and tremble” (James 2:19), but in its becoming the foundation of a righteous life.

At the same time, it is important to understand that the first true Christian baptisms, which we encounter in the Book of Acts, were performed on people who were either raised in the Old Testament tradition or who had consciously embraced it as adults. Not only did they already believe in the one God, but they also led a moral life that practically conformed to the standards of the law. All that was required of them for baptism was to acknowledge Jesus as Christ. However, the apostle’s preaching was already characterized by a fairly lengthy instruction in the faith and moral life (Acts 20:31). Ultimately, the experience of baptizing pagans led to the formation of a structured system of catechesis, which assumed that preparation for baptism was divided into several stages and lasted from 2 to 4 years.

If we consider the moral nature of preparation for baptism, its essence can be summarized as follows: through the Church’s assistance, the catechumen’s conscience was awakened, and he acquired the ability to distinguish between good and evil. Furthermore, he renounced grave sins and learned to live a virtuous life.

On the part of the Church, this was facilitated by the sermon, which was delivered after the reading of Scripture at the liturgy for the catechumens and accustomed the person to a constant, thoughtful reflection on the moral and doctrinal aspects of the Good News. Furthermore, the principle of communio sanctorum , or “communion of the saints,” played a crucial role on the path to moral perfection; in the case of catechumens, this meant experiencing fellowship with people who served as examples of faith and a pure, virtuous life. Finally, the Church prayed for the catechumen both during the liturgy and specifically in the prayers of the catechumenate and exorcisms. It is important to emphasize that in these prayers, the Church places the entire initiative in God’s hands. It is from Him that they expect “the forgiveness of sins” and the gift of “the garment of incorruption.” Only He can unite them with His Church and “count them among the chosen flock.”

The first prayer with which the catechumenate began in ancient times was the prayer of the 8th day[1], which is dedicated to the naming of the catechumen.

Addressing God, the priest prays that the future member of the Church may learn to “shun the vanities of the world” and “follow the commandments” of God. In fact, these very words in express the fundamental meaning of discipleship: to reject the vain, that is, ultimately meaningless, choices of the world and to follow God, striving to fulfill His will. The ancient meaning of the naming of the name is reflected in some acts of martyrdom, as well as in the second canon of the Sixth Ecumenical Council. It consists in the fact that a person is “made a Christian,” since the Name by which he is now called is the Name of God. Such sealing with the Name has an Old Testament prototype in the words of God spoken to Moses: “So let them invoke My Name upon the sons of Israel, and I will bless them” (Num. 6:27).

Understanding that under the pressure of the world a person may renounce his decision, the Church prays that the “holy Name” may remain upon him unaltered (glorified, unrepented) and that he may attain perfection through the sacraments. All these petitions are addressed to God, but it is the person who must act upon them. We express the hope that God will arrange his life in such a way that, “living according to the commandments” and “keeping the seal unbroken,” he may attain the Kingdom.

The prayer with which the Rite of Catechumenate itself begins in the modern Book of Liturgy is of great moral significance. Here, for the first time, it is emphasized that human resolve alone is insufficient to begin the Christian life; God’s action is necessary, which the priest expresses as follows: “Remove from him that ancient delusion.” It is clear that the “ancient delusion” (in Slavonic, “deception”) refers to the self-deception of our first parents, from which the Fall began. Praying for the one who is being catechized, the priest asks that he be freed from all the bonds of unrighteousness that bind people’s lives after the Fall. Further on, he asks that the catechumen’s soul, like his life, be filled with the three principal virtues of which the Apostle Paul speaks: “Fill him with faith in You, and hope, and love” (1 Cor 13:13). The purpose of the catechumenate itself is that he may learn “to act in accordance with all [God’s] commandments and to preserve what is pleasing to [Him].” In fact, this is the path that a person preparing for baptism was embarking upon and must follow so that baptism might become a seal—that is, a testimony that the observance of the commandments and the discernment of what is “pleasing” and “unpleasing” to God had become a way of life for him and had taken the form of a habit. Apparently, in Constantinople, this prayer was recited after the Week of the Veneration of the Cross. In the Gospel reading for that day, people were called upon to take up their cross and follow Christ.

The prohibitions or exorcisms recited over the person throughout the catechumenate, though they did not call the person himself to moral change, nevertheless spoke substantively of the catechumenate as a feat of spiritual warfare. Thus, the very first prohibition calls the catechumen “a newly chosen warrior of Christ, God”[2], while the second shows him the powerlessness of the devil, who “has no power even over the swine”[3]. Those walking this path must achieve “victory over him and his unclean spirits”[4]. At the same time, it is evident to both the one praying and the catechumen himself that only God can deliver His creation “from the bondage of the enemy”[5] and open his spiritual eyes. The exorcism prayers conclude with the rite of casting out evil spirits. All these spirits are associated with various passions and vices, the eradication of which the Church prays for. Some of them are of a general nature—delusions, vice, idolatry—while others are more specific—greed, lies, and various forms of impurity. However, after the negative petitions, positive ones always follow, among which the priest asks God for strength for the catechumen, that he may “live according to the commandments” and “keep the seal [of the cross] unbroken,” and “the [baptismal] garment unstained.”

A person’s individual path to baptism required repentance and a change of life. Already at this stage, at the beginning of the catechumenate, a person was required to correctly articulate the purpose of baptism and renounce grave sins, including leaving one’s profession if it was connected to grave sins (idolatry, fornication, murder, etc.). Thus, according to Egeria, who traveled to Jerusalem in the 4th century, the bishop would always inquire about the person intending to receive the sacrament of baptism: “whether he leads a good life, honors his parents, is not a drunkard or a braggart, and asks about all the vices that are most grievous in a person. And when he is convinced that the person is blameless in everything the bishop asked about in the presence of witnesses, he personally records his name. If, however, the person is accused of anything, the bishop orders him to leave, saying: let him reform, and when he has reformed, let him approach the font”[6] .

A key moment in the moral preparation for baptism is the dialogue between the priest and the catechumen, in which the latter is asked to renounce all the sinful aspects of his former life: “Do you renounce Satan, and all his works, and all his angels, and all his service, and all his pride?” Renunciation is an act of free and volitional self-determination on the part of a person in relation to the choice once made by our first parents. It is worth noting that the wording of the renunciation is intentionally general in nature. The future Christian renounces not so much specific sins as the entire sinful worldview, the values by which he lived before. Furthermore, it is important to understand that renunciation, accompanied by the act of “spitting on him,” signifies a declaration of spiritual war against the Evil One and all that is associated with him.

A person who has made the decision and renounced slavery to the evil one and his entire former sinful life makes this choice already possessing the habit of moral conduct. He does not merely intend to begin a new life; in a moral sense, he is already beginning it. And the sign of the completeness of this choice is union with Christ, which is based on faith and worship of the Holy Trinity. In turn, the moral life of a catechumen involved not only renouncing sins. Many Gospel parables, including “The Last Judgment,” “The Ten Virgins,” and “The Talents,” directly pointed to the necessity of constantly performing good deeds in order to become like God in love for the world.

As has already been said, the moral path of a disciple of Christ is the path to the cross. In a conversation with James and John, the Savior refers to His coming crucifixion precisely as a baptism, by which every disciple will ultimately have to be baptized. This means that “in the Gospel teaching of the Lord Jesus Christ, to be baptized means to share in His death and resurrection, to walk His way of the cross, to die to the world in order to be reborn in God”[7].

Given that baptism is precisely a sacrament, it should not be viewed as a special ritual form in which a psychological threshold is symbolically expressed—one that a person has crossed in their determination to begin a new life. Like any sacrament, baptism is a mystical union with Christ. Its meaning lies in the grace-filled purification of a person from sins, that is, the healing of the whole person, their deceitful mind, and their weakened will. It can be said that through union with Christ, as with the new Adam, a renewal or healing of a person’s true nature takes place. It is no coincidence that, addressing the Roman community, the Apostle Paul writes that the purpose of baptism is that those who have “been buried with Him [Christ] through baptism into death” may begin to live “in a new life” (Romans 6:4).

The invocation for the blessing of the water, which the priest recites before performing the sacrament, allows us to see two joint actions—the divine and the human—carried out in collaboration. Thus, first, it is evident that the sacrament takes place through the action of the Holy Spirit, who bestows upon the person the fruits of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross. The priest asks that the Lord make the water of baptism: “water of deliverance, water of sanctification, purification of body and spirit, liberation from bonds, forgiveness of sins, enlightenment of souls, font of rebirth, renewal of the spirit, gift of adoption, garment of incorruption, source of life.” All these petitions are addressed to God and are directly related to the moral changes that occur as a result of baptism. Some of them are of a negative nature, associated with the destruction of the tyranny of sin, which takes place through deliverance, purification, and forgiveness. Others are of a positive nature, accomplished through sanctification, enlightenment, rebirth, renewal, and adoption.

However, in the prayer itself, the action of grace is made contingent upon human action: “For You have said, O Lord: ‘Wash yourselves and be clean; remove the evil of your deeds from your souls.’ You have granted us a new birth from above—of water and the Spirit. Appear, O Lord, upon this water, and grant that the one being baptized may be transformed in it, so that he may put off the old man, perishing in deceitful desires, and clothe himself with the new man, renewed in the image of his Creator , so that, having become a partaker of the likeness of Your death in baptism, he may also become a partaker of the resurrection”[8]. The action of grace is devoid of any automatism and proves fruitful only if it is united with the person’s own resolve. By being immersed in the waters of baptism, as in the image of the Lord’s tomb, the old self must be “crucified with Him, so that the body of sin might be done away with, that we should no longer be slaves to sin” (Rom. 6:6). In practical terms, the main consequence is the inner stance that the baptized person takes toward sin. The Apostle formulates it quite clearly: “Likewise, consider yourselves dead to sin but alive to God in Christ Jesus our Lord” (Rom. 6:11).

It is important to note that the sacrament of baptism, like the entire work of our salvation, is a gift of grace that must be received by the individual. This is precisely why the prayer states that the person being baptized “will receive the reward of the heavenly calling and be numbered among the firstborn, inscribed in heaven…” provided they live a life “nurturing the pledge of grace.” At the same time, while an adult preparing for baptism must consciously renounce the habits of their past life and begin a new one, a child must be raised from the very beginning in the practice of a pure and virtuous life. It is no coincidence that St. John Chrysostom said: “Neither Baptism… nor anything else can bring us any benefit if we do not lead an honest, strict life, alien to all sin”[9]. One and a half thousand years after him, the Holy Martyr Thaddeus (Uspensky) wrote: “It is true that many who have been baptized cannot be called spiritually resurrected, since their spiritual life is no different from that of the unbaptized. One can be baptized with water without receiving the grace of the Life-Giving Spirit (see John 3:5)”[10].

In the context of moral life, each of these paths had its own advantages, which came to the fore in different historical periods. For Christians living in a pagan empire, there was an obvious danger that, growing up in a society full of temptations, a Christian baptized in childhood would renounce the gifts that had been given to him. In this case, the words of the Apostle Peter would be fully applicable to him: “It would have been better for them never to have known the way of righteousness than, after knowing it, to turn back from the holy commandment delivered to them” (2 Pet 2:21). At the same time, for children who lived within the framework of Christian states proper, there was no such danger, because secular laws largely deterred people from committing grave sins. The status of Christian values in the modern world is such that the appropriateness of a child’s baptism is usually assessed according to the degree of religiosity of his family, which assumes responsibility for his Christian upbringing.

Immediately after baptism, the priest reads Psalm 31, which expresses joy over the forgiveness of sins. However, a warning is also issued here on God’s behalf: “Do not be like a horse or a mule, which have no understanding; their jaws must be tightened with a bit and a bridle, for they do not obey you” ([11]). The meaning of this is that after baptism, a person must not stray from the path of a moral life, for otherwise they will bring upon themselves trials intended to save them from falling.

Finally, the baptized person is clothed in white garments, which are called the “robe of righteousness.” The meaning of this action is not a symbolic indication of the purity of life that a Christian is called to begin, since he was supposed to have begun it even before baptism. The white garments signify the newness of life itself, in which a person is ontologically united with Christ through the Church, which is His Body. This union is emphasized with particular force in the readings that will follow the anointing of the baptized with holy chrism.

[1] Judging by the surviving manuscripts, this prayer was originally recited over infants.

[2] Prohibition 1

[3] Prohibition 2

[4] Prohibition 3

[5] Prayer 4

[6] The Pilgrimage of Egeria, 45.

[7] George, Archbishop of Nizhny Novgorod and Arzamas, Theological Aspects of the Sacraments of Baptism and Chrismation // Orthodox Teaching on the Church Sacraments, Vol. 1. - Moscow: Synodal Biblical and Theological Commission, 2009. - p. 183.

[8] Prayer for the Blessing of Water

[9] John Chrysostom, st. Homily on the words of the Apostle: “I do not want you to be unaware, brethren, that our fathers were all under the cloud, and all passed through the sea” (1 Cor. 10:1)

[10] _Thaddeus (Uspensky),__hieromartyr,_The Joy of Christ’s Resurrection // Rejoice. — Moscow: Eleon, 1998. — pp. 16–17.

[11] Psalm 31

The moral aspects of the sacrament of chrismation.__

The Descent of the Holy Spirit in Sacred Scripture

Traditionally in the East, the sacrament of the descent of the Holy Spirit was performed immediately after baptism. Initially, it was performed through the laying on of hands, but later it came to be performed through anointing with holy chrism, which is why it received the name of Chrismation. At the same time, in Holy Scripture itself, it is often referred to as baptism with the Holy Spirit. Thus, calling for a baptism of repentance, John the Forerunner says that after him comes the One who will baptize with the Holy Spirit (Mark 1:8). In his conversation with Nicodemus, the Savior Himself says that being born into eternal life is connected with being born “of water and the Spirit” (John 3:5). Finally, before His ascension, the Savior tells His disciples that in a few days they will be baptized with the Holy Spirit (Acts 1:5), through which they will “receive power when the Holy Spirit comes upon you” and will be His, Christ’s, “witnesses” (Acts 1:8, 1 Thess 1:5). It is worth noting two points that Christ highlights as key:

· “to act in the power of the Holy Spirit” and

· “to be witnesses of Him.”

In this context, the Ascension itself proves necessary for the Comforter to come, through whom those who follow Christ are able to put discipleship into practice on their own.

Describing the event of Pentecost, the evangelist Luke says that the apostles were “filled with the Holy Spirit” and began “to speak in other tongues” (Acts 2:4), that is, the Savior’s word was fulfilled exactly. At the same time, from the perspective of moral theology, it is important that, despite its apparent uniqueness, the event that took place is universal in nature, and its repetition—despite differing circumstances—is possible in the life of every person. In fact, the Book of Acts is not merely a narrative of the labors of Peter, John, Philip, or Paul, but a depiction of their activities as disciples filled with the Spirit—that is, having received power and bearing witness to their Divine Teacher.

Drawing on the text of the prophet Joel, the Apostle Peter emphasizes that God is ready to bestow “His Spirit” upon “all flesh” (Acts 2:17). Receiving the Spirit proves to be a necessary condition for embarking on the path of discipleship, which is why the Apostle Peter calls upon the believers: “Repent, and let each of you be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins, and you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit” (Acts 2:38). The apostles’ testimony led to the descent of the Holy Spirit, similar to what happened on the day of Pentecost, occurring to all who believed and were baptized (Acts 15:8). The apostle’s words were subsequently fulfilled many times, and in every instance—with the exception of the story of Cornelius the centurion’s household (Acts 10:44)—the Holy Spirit descended upon the believers after their baptism (Acts 8:17, 39).

Like every sacrament, the Sacrament of the Holy Spirit first and foremost introduces a person to the mystery of Jesus Christ. This is precisely why, even though the laying on of hands was eventually replaced by chrismation, the sacrament was associated with the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Savior Himself. Thus, St. Cyril of Jerusalem wrote: “Having become partakers of Christ, you are rightly called Christians, that is, the anointed ones… You became anointed when you received the likeness [ἀντίτυπον – reflection, visible sign] of the Holy Spirit… because you are the image of Christ… When you emerged from the font of holy waters, you were anointed with an anointing corresponding to that with which Christ was anointed. This anointing is the Holy Spirit”[1].

Baptism with the Holy Spirit __

Before discussing the moral aspects of the sacrament, it is necessary to consider the conditions under which the descent of the Spirit becomes possible and how the fruits of His presence are described in Holy Scripture.

The first thing we see is that the apostles are disciples of Jesus who believe that He is the Son of God and the expected Messiah, or Christ. This is the primary condition necessary for baptism and receiving the Holy Spirit (Acts 8:37–39). However, in the description of the descent of the Spirit upon the apostles, there is another important characteristic.

The evangelist Luke states that “they were all together in one place” (Acts 2:1). Unity and fellowship are very important because the Spirit not only sanctifies each of them individually but also their community, uniting them into the Church of Christ. Each of us, through baptism, becomes one with Christ, but at the same time we are united into the Church, “being built together into a dwelling place of God in the Spirit” (Eph 2:22), so that the apostle himself emphasizes this unity with God, saying: “You are God’s temple, and the Spirit of God dwells in you” (1 Cor 3:16, 1 Cor 6:19)

When speaking of the Spirit, it is important to note that for the apostles, the Holy Spirit who descends upon them at Pentecost is the Spirit of Christ (1 Pet 1:11; Rom 8:9; Gal 4:6; Phil 1:19). This is important in the sense that the Holy Spirit does not establish any other covenant with them than the one Christ establishes. The disciples abide in Christ because He has given them of His Spirit. (1 Ин 4:13), and therefore we have “access to the Father through one Spirit” (Eph 2:18). At the same time, baptism is associated more with cleansing, rebirth, and renewal (Titus 3:5), while the descent of the Spirit is associated with sanctification (1 Pet. 1:2, 2 Thess. 2:13). Much later, it is precisely these features that the prayer before the anointing with chrism will emphasize, calling baptism “a blessed cleansing in holy water” and the anointing with chrism “divine sanctification.” The connection with sanctification is very important because it helps us understand the essence of the sacrament.

To understand this, we must first remember that, in the true sense of the word, only God is Holy. Although the Hebrew word for “holy,” קָדוֹשׁ (qāḏôš), literally means “set apart,” this does not refer so much to the separation of spirit from matter as to the perfection and completeness found in all things. He is called Holy not because He belongs to anything higher, but by virtue of His very Divinity, which is why in the Old Testament Holiness and Divinity appear as interchangeable concepts. At the same time, God created man for holiness. Moreover, already in the Book of Leviticus, God calls upon people: “Be holy, for I am holy” (Lev. 11:44). However, human holiness cannot be self-sufficient. Man is created as a being capable of communion with God, possessing the image of God and called to deification. This means that sanctification for him consists in embodying in life the Creator’s plan for him, that is, realizing the fullness of his humanity, which manifests itself in unity with God and deification. However, on earth, such fullness of deification and holiness was manifested only by Christ, whom the Fathers of the Fourth Ecumenical Council (?) called true God and true man. This means that, by uniting with Christ in the sacrament of baptism and receiving the Holy Spirit in chrismation, a person enters into the reality of sonship, that is, receives from God the “gift” of being, like Christ, a son of God—not by nature, but by adoption. This is precisely what the Apostle writes: “For you did not receive a spirit of slavery to fall back into fear, but you received a spirit of adoption, by which we cry out, ‘Abba, Father!’ This very Spirit testifies to our spirit that we are children of God” (Rom 8:15,16). Here it is worth recalling that when the Holy Spirit descended upon Christ, the Father said: “This is My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased” (Matt 3:17). By receiving the Spirit in Chrismation, each person receives the “gift” of being a “complete human being,” not apart from Christ, but precisely with Christ, as a member of His Body.

It is precisely in the event of Baptism that recapitulation (the change of the head of creation) takes place. Christ replaces Adam, who failed to fulfill his responsibility. Furthermore, the restoration of man and his sanctification grant him true freedom to act according to his nature, for “where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is freedom” (2 Cor 3:17). This freedom, of course, is not given without effort; it is both a gift and a task.**** It must become a way of life and be acquired through conscious effort and growth. The Apostle expresses this as follows: “But we all… as we look intently at the Lord’s glory, are being transformed into the same image from glory to glory, just as by the Spirit of the Lord.” (2 Cor 3:18) Moreover, for a person’s growth to be proper, he, as a faithful member of the Church, is “led by the Spirit of God” (Rom 8:14), and his conscience receives not only purification in baptism but is also enlightened, so that it is able to bear witness not of itself but “in the Holy Spirit” (Rom 9:1).

In the rite of the sacrament, the Spirit is imparted through the anointing with oil, which is called “the seal of the gift of the Holy Spirit.” It is called a seal in this case because it encompasses the purification and restoration of a person to the extent that allows him, exercising freedom, to manifest obedience to the truth in the Holy Spirit (1 Pet 1:22). It is no coincidence that the Apostle Paul writes: “God has ‘sealed us (placed a seal upon us) and given the Spirit as a pledge in our hearts’” (2 Cor. 1:22, Eph. 1:3, Eph. 4:30). And again, the Spirit is called a pledge in the sense that He provides the opportunity for growth and calls us to it, but accomplishes it together with the person.

As with baptism and any other sacrament, it is worth remembering that there is no automatism involved. Thus, St. Cyril of Jerusalem writes explicitly: “If you are a hypocrite, then people will baptize you now, but the Spirit will not baptize you”[2]. Similarly, St. Mark the Ascetic says, “To those who believe firmly, the Holy Spirit is given immediately after Baptism; but to the unbelievers and the wicked, He is not given even after Baptism”[3].

The Gifts of the Holy Spirit __

The presence of the Holy Spirit in a person reveals his abilities, which are commonly called the gifts of the Holy Spirit. The Apostle Paul expounds on the doctrine of these gifts in the greatest detail in chapter 12 of the Epistle to the Romans and chapter 12 of the First Epistle to the Corinthians. In Scripture itself, the descent of the Spirit is rarely associated with any obvious gift other than the gift of “speaking in tongues,” but the gifts are called gifts of the Spirit, which fully allows us to speak of them as gifts bestowed in the sacrament of Chrismation. Commenting on the Apostle’s words about the gifts of the Spirit, St. Theophan the Recluse says: “The gifts mentioned here by the Apostle are not the natural ones that everyone receives at birth, although they too are all from God; but rather supernatural, grace- filled gifts bestowed by the Holy Spirit after Baptism in Confirmation, which in the time of the Apostles was performed by the laying on of hands and constituted an indispensable attribute of every believer and a sign that he is a believer in Christ”[4].

Reflecting on gifts, the Apostle Paul writes: “There are different kinds of gifts, but the same Spirit; there are different kinds of service, but the same Lord; there are different kinds of working, but the same God works all things in all people. To each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common good” (1 Cor 12:4–7). He outlines a series of categories—“gift, ministry, and work”—which, moving from the spiritual realm of “gift” through the intellectually comprehensible “ministry,” become concrete “works.” At the same time, the apostle summarizes all three categories with the phrase “manifestations of the Spirit.” The word φανέρωσις means “revelation, disclosure,” from which we can conclude that “manifestations of the Spirit” are evidence that the Spirit is present in a person. However, this presence does not diminish the person’s own activity, as might be inferred from the words “working all things in all.” The word ενεργων, which is translated as “working,” can also mean “assisting,” which allows us to speak of the Spirit’s action more as revealing a person’s own ability and inclination, rather than creating this ability apart from human will.

Gifts, according to the Apostle, are given to everyone, though they are given in different ways. The measure of the gift, according to the Apostle, is determined as follows: “[if you have] prophecy, [prophesy] in proportion to your faith” (Rom 12:6). According to St. Basil the Great, “since one [person] is not able to contain all spiritual gifts, but the bestowal of the Spirit is according to the measure of each person’s faith”[5]. At the same time, St. John Chrysostom clarifies that, in speaking of the measure of faith, the apostle “wishes to inspire them to feats of virtue and make them more zealous, pointing out that it depends on them themselves to receive a greater or lesser gift”[6].

It is important to note that the purpose for which the “gifts of the Spirit” are bestowed in the sacrament is linked by the Apostle to benefit. At the same time, the word συμφέρω, translated as “benefit,” is in the original a verb form and means “to gather, to be useful, and to bring benefit.” From this, we can conclude that the gifts are given not for personal benefit, but for the common good. St. Basil the Great writes explicitly about this: “The gifts are given to each person and are given for the benefit of the Church.” He writes: “In community life, each person’s own gift becomes a common good for those living together… So, whoever receives any [of the gifts] does not have it for himself, but rather for the sake of others”[7]. St. Ephrem the Syrian reasons similarly, saying: “Although we have the grace of various gifts, yet all of them are given for the service of the Church”[8]. However, in his epistle to the Corinthians, the apostle writes somewhat differently: “But all these are the work of one and the same Spirit, who distributes to each one individually as He wills” (1 Cor 12:11).

All of this allows us to say that the Spirit, who is given to man as a Gift, who adopts and sanctifies, renews and reveals man’s abilities, which manifest as gifts of the Spirit’s presence in the life of the Church.

By comparing the lists of gifts that the apostle provides in the relevant chapters of his epistles to the Romans and Corinthians, we can say that some of them clearly correspond, while others can be linked hypothetically—though we must understand that the apostle was not establishing a systematic doctrine, but rather pointing out the gifts that were relevant at that time. Thus, in the Epistle to the Romans, the apostle writes that by the grace given to us, we have various gifts in the church (?): prophecy, service, teaching, exhortation, giving, leadership, and acts of mercy (Rom 12:6–8). In the Epistle to the Corinthians, the list of gifts is somewhat different: the word of wisdom, the word of knowledge, faith, gifts of healing, working of miracles, prophecy, discernment of spirits, and finally, speaking in tongues and the interpretation of tongues (1 Cor 12:8–10). A comparison of the two lists shows that in the Epistle to the Romans, the gifts are more socially oriented, whereas in the Epistle to the Corinthians, some of them are of a supernatural nature.

[1]Cyril of Jerusalem, St. Catecheses and Initiatory Instructions. Moscow: Blagovest, 2010. — p. 334.

[2] Cyril of Jerusalem. St. Catechetical Lectures. 17.36.

[3] Mark the Ascetic. St. Ascetic Works. — 2nd ed., revised. — Holy Trinity-St. Sergius Lavra, 2013, p. 105.

[4] Theophan the Recluse, St. Commentary on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans. Moscow, 2006. p. 285.

[5] Basil the Great, St. Rules Set Forth at Length in Questions and Answers // Works: In 2 vols. Vol. 2. Moscow, 2009. p. 167

[6] St. John Chrysostom. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, Homily 21. https://omsk-eparhiya.ru/orthodoxbasics/Osnovi/IoannZl/09/Z09_2_21.htm

[7]Basil the Great, St. Rules Set Forth at Length in Questions and Answers // Works: In 2 vols. Vol. 2. Moscow, 2009. p. 167

[8]The Works of Our Holy Father Ephrem the Syrian. 2nd ed. Part 7. TSL, 1913. p. 50.

The life of the Church has always been dedicated to a single common goal: the salvation of people. If we consider what the apostles saw as their mission, we will understand that they preached and baptized people, invoking the Holy Spirit upon them through the laying on of hands and celebrating the Lord’s Supper or the Eucharist. A study of the apostles’ epistles, the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, and the subsequent Church Fathers attests that missions, catechesis, and subsequent pastoral work were always accompanied by moral instruction. Just as for the authors of the New Testament, for them there was no ethics other than that which has a theological foundation. Many of them were highly educated and well-versed in the pagan ethical teachings of their time. At the same time, they accepted everything that was in accordance with Christianity as “seeds of the Logos,” which were present in the worldview of every people, as the Apostle Paul explicitly states. Taking up this thought, Clement of Alexandria wrote: “Philosophy was necessary for the Greeks for the sake of righteousness, before the coming of the Lord, … it is even possible that philosophy was given to the Greeks directly, for it was the ‘tutor’ (Gal. 3:24) of Hellenism to Christ—just as the Law was for the Jews. Thus, philosophy was a preparation that paved the way for man to perfection in Christ”[1]. At the same time, they knew perfectly well who the tutor (παιδαγωγoς) was in the ancient world. He was a slave who did not enter the school; he merely brought the child to its threshold. This means that the highest assessments that could be given to philosophy and ethics did not rise above the preparatory level, in which, among other things, errors were often discerned that were inevitable in the religion of natural revelation.

Understanding moral teaching as part of theological teaching, the Fathers clearly saw that “Christian ethics” are rooted in human nature, which has been healed by Christ. This meant only one thing: Christ alone is the “physician of body and soul” ([2]), and only through Him is the true fulfillment of all that is right and wrong—as God intended for humanity—possible. Summarizing nearly a thousand years of patristic thought, St. Nicholas Cabasilas wrote: “There are two things that bring one closer to God and in which the salvation of people lies—receiving the Holy Mysteries and exercising the will in piety”[3].

When speaking of the moral aspect of the sacraments, it is important to recall what the sacraments are in the context of patristic theology. The fact is that for quite a long time, there was essentially only one sacrament—the sacrament of salvation, performed by Jesus Christ. This is precisely why a sacrament is, first and foremost, that which introduces the believer into the Mystery of Christ and bestows upon the believer the fruits of His saving work. This is precisely why the first sacraments discussed were Baptism, Confirmation, and the Eucharist, which were sometimes combined in the catechetical tradition into the triune sacrament of Initiation. At the same time, catechesis itself was understood as a mandatory and extremely important path that the person being baptized had to undergo.

[1] Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 1.5

[2] Writings of the Apostolic Fathers. — Moscow: Publishing Council of the Russian Orthodox Church, 2003. — p. 334. (St. Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Ephesians, VII)

[3] Nicholas Kavassilas, ed. On Life in Christ. Moscow, 2006. p. 61

What do these various gifts signify, and what do they call us to do in a moral sense?

Although in the modern world prophecy(προφητεία) is associated with divination and prediction, in the biblical context the gift of prophecy was linked to the ability to proclaim God’s will, guiding a person or a people onto the true path. This is because a prophet is able to “reveal the hidden things, to discern what is in a person’s heart” ([1]). Even if he predicts the future, he is not driven by curiosity or a desire to warn of the consequences of a particular decision.

Ministry(διακονία) is traditionally understood as the gift of helping neighbors in their personal needs, caring for the sick, the infirm, and the poor. In this sense, ministry is accessible to many. However, this gift can also be understood in a broader sense, as the ability to fulfill the commandment to “be a servant to all” (Matt. 20:25) and to bring spiritual benefit to one’s neighbors. In the modern world, diakonia, as a form of Christian social service, is experiencing a revival. Like prophecy, ministry is based on faith. Thus, Ambrosiaster writes: “To carry out ministry to the brethren, the minister is strengthened to the extent that his faith determines the scope of the ministry. Otherwise, he will labor beyond the bounds of faith and be exhausted by ministry to the point of ruin…”[2].

The gift of teaching(διδάσκω), which can apparently be correlated with the word “knowledge” from the Epistle to the Corinthians, refers to the ability to teach. In the New Testament context, this gift is associated not so much with the transmission of any kind of knowledge as with catechetical instruction in the faith, an example of which was set by the Lord Jesus Christ Himself, Whom the evangelists not coincidentally call a teacher. Emphasizing the Spirit’s teaching role, the apostle calls Him “the Spirit of wisdom and revelation in the knowledge of Him [God]” (Eph 1:17). Furthermore, one can only learn to believe correctly in Christ Himself as Lord through the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 12:3).

In turn, the gift of exhortation(παρακαλέω) may also seem to be a gift related to teaching, but only in a moral sense. Ambrose believes that the one who possesses this gift “urges the brothers toward good, and the unbelievers toward faith”[3]. However, the Greek term has a broader meaning: to comfort, encourage, give hope, or provide moral support. This means that the meaning of this gift cannot be reduced to a moral context, but may imply helping those who are discouraged, which is particularly relevant today given the increasing prevalence of depression worldwide. This may also be the case because the Spirit gives “joy in the midst of many sorrows” (1 Thess 1:6). Furthermore, such an encouraging, gospel-centered approach to people can certainly be understood as missionary service.

The gift of giving simply implies the ability to share (μεταδίδωμι) with sincerity and generosity (άπλότης). Sincerity and simplicity imply the absence of self-interest and ambition when helping others. In the words of Blessed Theodoret of Cyrus: “Not seeking glory from others, but meeting the needs of the needy and not reasoning whether it will be enough or not enough for oneself, but trusting in God and giving alms generously”[4].

The gift of leading with diligence implies caring leadership, since the word προΐστημι is translated not only as “to be at the head, to govern, but also to care,” while the word σπουδή means “diligence, zeal, and care.” In the modern world, leadership is often associated with self-will and the exercise of power, and it is very telling that in the gift given to a Christian, special emphasis is placed on caring for those over whom authority or leadership is exercised. A disciple of Christ who seeks power must remember the Savior’s words: “Whoever wants to be great among you must be your servant, and whoever wants to be first among you must be the slave of all. For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve…” (Mark 10:43–45).

Finally, the gift of charity , which must be practiced with generosity, is connected not only to what is understood today as charity, since the verb ἐλεέω “means to sympathize, to pity, to have compassion.” In a broad sense, this gift is connected with mercy, to which every disciple is called, for Christ said: “Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful” (Luke 6:36). At the same time, “It is not enough to show mercy; one must do so generously and without sorrow; or, better said, not only without sorrow, but also with a cheerful and joyful spirit” ([5]).

Of the gifts the apostle lists in his epistle to the Corinthians, the first to mention is the gift of faith. It is traditionally believed that this does not refer to the faith that should be inherent in everyone, but to a special form of it capable of working miracles (Mark 11:23) and inspiring others. This is also connected to the gift of healing, which, at least at that time, implied miraculous healing rather than the art of medicine. The gift of discerning spirits is also mentioned by the Apostle John the Theologian as necessary in a world full of spiritual dangers. Finally, the gifts related to speaking in tongues and the interpretation of tongues also belong to the special or, as they are called, extraordinary gifts, since they remained a feature of the apostolic age. At the same time, in a broader sense, the gift of tongues and their interpretation restores a person’s ability for genuine communication and understanding of others.

When speaking of spiritual gifts, it is important to remember that, according to the Apostle, each person is given a gift through which they are to serve for the common good—a gift that is itself a manifestation of the fact that the person has been filled with the Holy Spirit in the sacrament. Unfortunately, in the context of modern church life, most believers do not think at all about the gifts of the Spirit, much less about using them to serve one another. In assessing the current situation, one might point to changing circumstances; however, St. Luke of Crimea, who lived in the 20th century and knew the conditions of believers’ lives well, wrote: “How many misfortunes and sorrows befall everyone who has not recognized their gift from God and who willfully walks the path that pleases them! But for those who have correctly understood and diligently preserve the gift of grace appointed to them by God, it is very important to do the work pleasing to God with great diligence and zeal”[6].

In light of St. Luke’s words, every believer should reflect on what gift they might use to serve their neighbors and the Church. Reflecting on this, the apostle wrote that the Spirit enables us to “know the things that God has freely given us” (1 Cor. 2:12). At the same time, however, the question may arise as to whether the apostle’s list of gifts is exhaustive or whether he spoke only of some of them. A careful reading of the apostle’s text suggests that there may be other gifts as well. The list of gifts mentioned by Paul is not exhaustive but implies a progression toward perfection. Speaking of various gifts, he ultimately calls on the disciples to strive for the attainment of even greater gifts, among which the greatest is love (1 Cor. 12:31). Moreover, human love is a response to God’s love, “poured into our hearts through the Holy Spirit who has been given to us” (Rom. 5:5). At the same time, some authors believed that the gifts of the Spirit can be understood as the sanctification of a person’s entire life. Thus, St. Filaret of Moscow taught that “the anointing of the forehead signifies the sanctification of the mind, or of thoughts. The anointing of the chest signifies the sanctification of the heart, or of desires. The anointing of the eyes, ears, and mouth signifies the sanctification of the senses. The anointing of the hands and feet signifies the sanctification of deeds and the entire conduct of the Christian”[7]. However, it seems evident that the teaching on chrismation as the enlightenment of life, on the one hand, and the bestowal of the Spirit, whose presence manifests itself in one gift or another, on the other, are by no means mutually exclusive.

The presence of the Spirit in a person is manifested not only in his activities, in which the gifts are realized, but also in what the apostle calls the fruits of the Spirit. He writes about these fruits twice. Thus, in the Epistle to the Galatians, he says: “But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, (Gal 5:22). Whereas in the Epistle to the Ephesians he writes, “The fruit of the Spirit consists in all goodness, righteousness, and truth. (Eph. 5:9). These fruits represent, in a sense, the culmination of a person’s life in the Spirit, which can be attained only through inner work and spiritual effort, because the Spirit blows where it wills; its indwelling in a person is not a given but a task that is accomplished by the person throughout their entire life.

[1] St. Theophan the Recluse, Commentary on the First Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians. Moscow: 2006. — p. 567.

[2]**Ambrosiaster.**Ambrosiaster’s Commentary on the Pauline Epistles: Romans / translated with notes by Theodore S. de Bruyn; with an introduction by Theodore S. de Bruyn, Stephen A. Cooper, and David G. Hunter. — Atlanta: SBL Press, 2017. —**** P. 222

[3] Ibid

[4]Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Blessed. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans // Works of Blessed Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrrhus / ed. by Prof. A. I. Sidorov. — Moscow: Palomnik, 2003, p. 186.

[5] John Chrysostom, St. Homily XXI // Works in 12 vols. Vol. 9. Book 2. St. Petersburg, 1903. p. 759

[6] Luke of Crimea, St., Sermons on the Epistles of the Apostles https://azbyka.ru/otechnik/Luka_Vojno-Jasenetskij/evangelskoe-zlato/2

[7] Filaret of Moscow, St., Extensive Catechism, p. 64

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